This podcast is part two based on the articles by Tam titled: DNA discovery, extraction and structure. A critical review.
For our part one podcast please refer to - PCR and Real Time RT-PCR: A Critical Review
Tam provides an overview of the history of DNA discovery, extraction, and structure, as well as critical perspectives on these topics. Here's an overview of the information:
Discovery and Extraction:
In 1869, Johannes Friedrich Miescher was the first scientist to isolate nucleic acid, which he named "nuclein," from leukocytes (white blood cells) collected from pus on surgical bandages.
Miescher observed that the addition of acid to the solution caused a precipitate to form, and an alkali would dissolve it. He also determined that his "nuclein" contained a large amount of phosphorus but almost no sulfur.
Miescher concluded that he discovered a novel substance based on the chemical reactions of the solution, not from direct microscopic observation of the nucleus.
Hoppe-Seyler repeated Miescher's experiments, obtaining leukocytes from dogs. He also experimented with yeast cells, noting structural similarities to pus cells.
The "extraction" methods of Miescher and Hoppe-Seyler involved chemical washes of human and animal excretions, not actual isolation of a substance.
Between 1885 and 1901, Albrecht Kossel determined that nucleic acid comprised five compounds: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T), and uracil (U)5.
Kossel used chemical extraction to obtain these compounds from various animal organs and body parts.
Phoebus Levene is also credited with discovering DNA components, including deoxyribose.
DNA Structure:
In May 1952, the famous X-ray diffraction image "Photo 51" of "Signer DNA" was produced by Raymond Gosling under the supervision of Rosalind Franklin.
This photo became the basis for modeling the currently accepted DNA structure.
Franklin's research concluded that NaDNA structure was crystalline and could take a helical shape, depending on its state of hydration.
Several articles published in 1953 discussed the helical structure of DNA using the Patterson function and X-ray diffraction patterns.
The double helix form of DNA was suggested based on missing points in Photo 51, with the diffraction pattern of a single spiral being almost identical.
The base pairs were not diffracted, and their existence was assumed based on the theoretical structure of DNA.
Franklin and Gosling assumed that the bases are evenly spaced apart when interpreting Photo 51.
Watson and Crick never conducted X-ray crystallography or other lab work on DNA. Their two-chain helical model was based on theoretical molecular structure and the work of others.
The helical structure of DNA was suggested based on many assumptions and a lack of scientific evidence.
The DNA form was originally drawn by Crick’s wife based on a mathematical analysis of spots revealed by X-ray crystallography, although Watson and Crick did not use any mathematical analysis to support their claims.
The article proposing a helical structure of DNA by Wilkins et al. mentions that treated matter produced similar diffraction patterns to matter treated differently, but all matter was treated in one way or another, and all were exposed to X-ray damage.
The same single fiber of NaDNA was exposed to x-rays for over 62 hours, as it was hydrated, dehydrated, and re-hydrated to obtain different diffraction photos.
Critical Perspectives and Questions:
The delicate nature of DNA's physical and molecular structure, which can be damaged by heat, chemicals, and radiation, is often overlooked.
Miescher's and Hoppe-Seyler's experiments involved chemical washes, not actual isolation, and they did not provide drawings of isolated cells or details of microscope use.
Kossel's findings on DNA components are not confirmed by repetition or freely available methodology.
The interpretation of X-ray diffraction patterns is subjective, depending on the observer's knowledge and the mathematical models applied.
The base pairs in DNA are assumed, not directly observed, and the interpretation of diffraction patterns takes this into account.
The conclusions about DNA structure were derived from NaDNA only, without comparison to DNA from other sources.
The use of X-rays damages the structure of DNA, which raises questions about whether the images obtained are of distorted DNA.
Signer's method of extracting high-quality DNA is not widely used, and his research paper is not easily accessible.
There is no evidence that the natural form and state of DNA is helical.
The three articles published in "Nature" in 1953, which proposed the double helix structure, are not available for free, raising questions about the accessibility of foundational research.
Scientists assume that the nucleus, an inactive part of the cell, contains vital information for life.
It is questioned whether components extracted from one species represent the content of all species.
It is questioned whether the method of DNA extraction, which uses harsh chemicals, centrifugation, heating, and boiling can provide meaningful explanations about how life works.
Since 1950, only two more images of DNA have been published, both showing a single-chain helix form, while DNA is claimed to be the code of life.
It is questioned why Signer’s DNA is not used to confirm assumptions about the DNA double helix.
The author of the article states that all studies are based on the idea that DNA can exist, operate and replicate outside a living cell, under extreme heat, mixed with harsh chemicals, with conclusions based on byproducts and electron microscopy images.
The current methods of isolating and extracting DNA have not changed much since their discovery.
It is questioned why the components of the base pairs that were isolated by Kossel are invisible using X-ray and electron microscopes.
Additional Points:
There is skepticism about the role of genes in heredity and disease, with emphasis on lifestyle, toxicity exposure, and environmental factors.
The existence of genes is based on DNA theory, chromosomes and sequencing.
There are concerns about the use of synthetic DNA in PCR and sequencing.
The article questions the validity of DNA tests, ancestry tests, and GMOs.
The article also raises questions about the nature of inheritance and suggests alternative theories from Bechamp, Naessens, and Sheldrake.
The article implies that the reductionist thinking in science is a deliberate attempt to hide the true nature of living beings as electrical, spiritual entities.
The article questions the reliability of electron microscopy due to the destructive nature of sample preparation and the fact that the images obtained are actually shadows.
It is claimed that there are no genes as the so-called geneticists describe them and that everything is vibrational energy.
This information provides a critical overview of DNA, its discovery, and the methodologies used to establish its structure, as well as different points of view on this topic.
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